AbstractsTeacher recruitment and retention: a review of the recent empirical literature
Volume 76
Number 2, Summer 2006;
Pages 173–208
The article summarises recent empirical literature from the USA on teacher recruitment and retention, reviewing 46 studies using data collected between 1990 and 2004. The review explored: characteristics of individuals entering and remaining in teaching; characteristics of schools and districts that successfully retain teachers; and types of policies that have demonstrated some success in teacher attraction and retention. The researchers’ conceptual framework incorporated the market principle of ‘opportunity costs’, that is, individuals will enter or remain in teaching provided the gains available to them are sufficient compensation for the loss of opportunities offered by other activities. Individuals entering teaching proved more likely to be female and white, although minority enrolments in teacher training increased dramatically over the research period. College graduates with higher ability were less likely to enter teaching, especially at the primary level. This may be consistent with the ‘opportunity cost’ principle, as men and those with higher ability levels have historically had greater access to a wider range of career options. Studies of individual motivation tentatively suggested that enjoying their work and contributing to society were common motivating factors among those entering teaching. Those remaining in teaching were characterised by a higher level of age and experience, and were more likely to be men than women. Higher-ability teachers were more likely to leave the profession, as were those who saw teaching as a short-term career, or who had experienced significant frustration or failure. As expected, the schools experiencing least success recruiting and retaining teachers were primarily low-socioeconomic, high-minority and urban. Policies that had successfully fostered teacher retention tended to either increase financial rewards or improve working conditions. Mentoring and induction, class sizes, teacher autonomy and administrative support were all areas affecting teacher retention that could be ameliorated by policy intervention. One of the key limitations on the available literature was that very few research studies combined issues of teacher recruitment with teacher quality. A more rigorous approach to retention policies is needed both to ascertain the effectiveness of different approaches, and to assess the types of teachers that are being retained. KLA Subject HeadingsTeaching professionEducation research Education policy United States of America (USA) Encouraging technophobes: old dogs can learn new tricks
Volume 13
Number 6, November 2006;
Pages 36–38
A recent US survey investigated the continuing presence of technophobic teachers in the education system. Every school reported at least a few teachers who remain hostile to or intimidated by technology. Most technophobic teachers were found to be nearing retirement. The ubiquitous use of email and administrative requirements have forced most teachers to learn at least basic information technology skills. Recalcitrant technology users tended to be single or childless, while some respondents with families reported that their own children and partners have taught them ICT skills. Not all staff need become technophiles, but all staff should be comfortable with ICT. Mentoring and staff development are seen as the most promising approaches to helping teachers develop ICT skills. The key qualities of successful mentors appear to be patience and an accepting attitude. Staff development should be seen by the participants as leading to increased productivity in either administration or instruction. Sessions should initially be short, hands-on, non-threatening, fun and have direct relevance to the participants. If possible, sessions should be conducted in school hours or be rewarded in some manner. Both mentoring and staff development will continue to be important as technologies develop over time. KLA Subject HeadingsTeaching professionInformation and Communications Technology (ICT) Meeting up is hard to do
Number 176, December 2006;
Pages 50–52
Managers spend up to 30 per cent of their time in unnecessary or ineffective meetings. Staff usually resent unnecessary meetings and may not contribute to them effectively. Management studies have demonstrated that the decision error rate of groups is the same as for individuals, but 'take longer to make'. Reasons why leaders call inappropriate meetings include distrust of alternative forms of communication, lack of confidence to make unilateral decisions, a perceived lack of authority or a desire to spread the blame for a potentially poor decision. Problems in decision making and in disseminating information can often be overcome without resorting to meetings. For example, managers can help ensure that emails are read by limiting the number of memos and sending them only to the most relevant staff members. A staff noticeboard can be used for non-essential information. Decision makers should be empowered and a culture of support established. Where possible, decisions should be made early enough to allow time to correct mistakes. Meeting times can be shortened if qualified staff prepare well-designed proposals beforehand. KLA Subject HeadingsTeaching professionLeadership Education management Diaspora, hybridity and growing up bilingual in a globalised worldJanuary 2006
Over the last 50 years, English has become the second most widely spoken language in the world. This is not due to inherently superior linguistic features, or to large numbers of native English speakers, but rather to the connection between English and the dominant cultural, political, economic and military forces in today’s world. The dominance of English threatens linguistic diversity. This is particularly apparent in immigrant or diaspora communities, where parents often encourage their children to speak English to gain social and economic advantages. However, maintaining a child’s home language is important for strengthening family cohesion, retaining links with family and friends overseas, and shaping identity. Educators need to be sensitive to the complexity of bilingual children’s experiences in shaping their identity across two or more cultural or linguistic contexts. Current Australian educational practices typically privilege English monolingualism. Developmentalist pedagogies assume that children progress through normative developmental pathways and only account for the acquisition of one language. Even ‘liberal pluralist’ approaches based on cultural affirmation have ‘for the most part translated into pedagogies that are tokenistic and superficial towards cultural difference’. Interviews with Latin American Australian families in Sydney, including the author’s own family, revealed their struggle with identity. Many of the children could not differentiate national, linguistic and cultural identities; for example one girl claimed she was Spanish because her mother came from Uruguay. Parents (mostly mothers) used a range of strategies to strengthen their children’s understanding of their second language and culture in the home. The interviews clearly demonstrated the differences that exist within linguistic and cultural communities, revealing identity as ‘transformative, changeable and hybrid’ rather than fixed to a single language or culture. While non-white identities are often discussed, the culture of ‘whiteness’ often evades scrutiny in Australian classrooms. Educators need to interrogate what it means to be ‘white’ in order to better understand the various cultural and linguistic identities of their students. They must also acknowledge the significance of children’s home languages in shaping identity and social relationships, and move beyond pedagogies which privilege monolingualism to incorporate experiences from children’s home and community contexts. Key Learning AreasLanguagesSubject HeadingsLanguages other than English (LOTE)Multicultural education English language teaching Globalisation Social life and customs A catch-22 for language learners
Volume 64
Number 3, November 2006;
Pages 22–27
Under the US education policy No Child Left Behind (NCLB), proficiency targets in state assessments may be modified for some student subgroups. Arguably the most problematic subgroup is Limited English Proficiency (LEP). Unlike ethnicity or disability subgroups, the LEP group is highly unstable. As students’ English proficiency improves, they move out of the subgroup and are replaced by new migrants, making it impossible to show improvement in LEP test scores over time. The US government has responded by excluding new migrants from reading tests; however this move does not help LEP students in maths tests, which are no easier for them. The government has also increased the length of time students may remain in the subgroup, but this measure only defers the need to deal with the problem. States are permitted to make ‘reasonable’ accommodations for ELLs, which range from reading questions aloud to students, to permitting bilingual dictionaries. Studies in Texas and Arizona have shown such accommodations have little effect. In Arizona, the vast majority of teachers felt that state tests were inappropriate and often highly distressing for LEP students. NCLB requires states to translate tests into native languages ‘to the extent practicable’. The number of native languages in America, and the difficulty of revalidating tests in a new language, mean that few states have found translation to be ‘practicable’ at all. Instead, many states have addressed the problem by manipulating numbers. Test scores for any student subgroup are excluded from accountability measures if membership falls below a minimum number, determined by the state. States are setting high minimum numbers, so that few schools are obliged to count the scores of their LEP populations. This begs the question of why LEP students should be assessed at all. LEP students and their teachers would be better served by focusing on their cultural and linguistic needs, rather than state assessments, until they are ready to enter NCLB’s monolingual testing environment. Better still, testing practices should reflect the US’s critical need for bilingual citizens. As it stands, NCLB is a ‘giant leap backwards’ for native language preservation. Key Learning AreasLanguagesSubject HeadingsLanguages other than English (LOTE)English as an additional language Assessment Standards Education policy United States of America (USA) The loneliness of the long-distance Scottish physical education teacher: how to provide effective in-service for experienced teachers implementing new curricula
Volume 32
Number 3, September 2006;
Pages 359–373
Reflecting changes in other countries, physical education (PE) in Scotland has recently sought to raise its profile by introducing academic examinations. The change poses serious challenges to the subject knowledge of experienced PE teachers, accustomed to a more practical approach. A study of PE teachers and students in 10 Scottish schools revealed that only a few schools possessed sufficient expertise to benefit from the new assessment-based curriculum. Others were struggling, or resorting to a prescriptive, ‘rote-learning’ approach to cope with the new examinations and academic content. The difficulties teachers faced in implementing the reforms undermined their confidence, and created a sense of professional isolation. The in-service professional development that was provided to teachers when the reforms were introduced was insufficient. One teacher per school was trained, with the expectation that their knowledge would ‘cascade’ throughout their school. While this approach may successfully disseminate simple information, it was inadequate for the deep pedagogical transformations the reforms sought to bring about. Instead, professional development is needed which demonstrates immediately workable activities and ideas, integrating new academic content and pedagogical theory with PE teachers’ preference for practical sessions. The study showed that PE teachers are interested in and motivated towards improving their teaching. However, better integration of research, policy and practice is now required to overcome the diminished confidence and professional isolation that has resulted from curriculum change which has tested the limits of their professional expertise. Key Learning AreasHealth and Physical EducationSubject HeadingsPhysical educationEducation policy Professional development Scotland Assessment Effectiveness of learning objects in various instructional settings
Volume 31
Number 3, 6 September 2006;
Pages 233–247
There has been growing interest in digital learning objects (LOs) in recent years, but little empirical evidence exists about their ability to improve educational practice. A Finnish study analysed the use of LOs in three different fourth- and fifth-grade classes: mathematics, Finnish grammar and science. After completing pre-tests of existing knowledge and aptitude, students received two hour-long lessons on a specific topic. For each topic, one class incorporated the LOs, and one used traditional teacher-led instructional methods. For the science unit, a third class was conducted combining both LOs and traditional teaching. In the mathematics and grammar classes, simple drill-and-practice LOs were used. Students progressed through a game-like sequence of levels, receiving instant feedback on their answers. Post-tests for these subjects revealed no difference in learning between students in the LO and traditional classes. Differences did emerge, however, in observations of how students worked. Students using the LOs seemed more intent on mastering how the LO operated than the content they were supposed to be learning. A deeper level of learning was evident in the teacher-led classes for these subjects. The science class used a different kind of LO, which simulated the construction of an electrical circuit. High levels of deep engagement with the content was evident in all three science classes (LO, teacher-led and mixed-media), but the opportunity for virtual experimentation provided by the LO alleviated the frustrations students experienced in grappling with hands-on equipment before theoretical concepts had been mastered. Students in the mixed-media class were particularly eager to try out the circuits they had successfully created in the LOs with real materials. For the science unit, post-test results were significantly better in the LO and mixed-media classes. This suggests that different types of LOs may be more effective than others. The successful LO in this study supported and enhanced deep learning, rather than simply drilling ‘correct’ responses. Certain learning contexts may also be better suited to LO use. Most of all, the study demonstrated that LOs should not be expected to enhance learning in their own right, but to be successful are dependent on the whole learning environment. KLA Subject HeadingsEducational evaluationInformation and Communications Technology (ICT) Science teaching Mathematics teaching Language and languages Finland Teachers' experiences of a single-sex initiative in a co-education school
Volume 32
Number 3, September 2006;
Pages 285–298
As girls have been shown to out-perform boys in academic assessments, some coeducational schools have turned to single-sex classes to narrow the performance gap and improve student achievement overall. Experiments with single-sex classes were popular in Australia, New Zealand, Sweden and the USA in the 1980s and 1990s but evidence of their effectiveness has been mixed. A 2004 study investigated teachers’ perceptions of a single-sex initiative in a coeducational secondary school in Northern Ireland. A cohort of students was separated into streamed single-sex classes for all subjects over four years, from Year 8 to Year 11. Through questionnaires and interviews, teachers described their involvement in the initiative, its impact on their enjoyment of teaching, and their perceptions of its impact on student behaviour and achievement. Less than a third of teachers recalled a ‘consultation’ process prior to the initiative, and the majority indicated that it was ‘unpopular’ with staff. Elaborating on reasons for resistance, one senior teacher noted an element within the school that was ‘opposed to any form of change’; others felt the initiative had been ‘imposed’ on them. Many also felt that ‘inadequate’ training and support had been provided to teachers before and during the initiative. Teachers indicated a preference for teaching mixed or girls classes. None preferred boys classes, with some finding them ‘highly stressful’, especially in the lower ability streams. Most teachers did not perceive any improvement in boys’ behaviour in the single-sex classes. Some complained that segregation exacerbated ‘macho’ behaviour and discouraged academic achievement. Nor did teachers perceive improvements in academic achievement for either sex. The study supports other research findings that single-sex classes will not necessarily improve student achievement, particularly for boys. It also demonstrates the impact that organisational factors such as consultation and support may have on teachers’ support for school-based initiatives. KLA Subject HeadingsBoys' educationGirls' education Great Britain Male and female teachers' evaluative responses to gender and the implications of these for the learning environments of primary age pupils
Volume 16
Number 2, September 2006;
Pages 105–120
A British study asked 51 primary teachers (26 male and 25 female) how gender influenced their approaches to curriculum, classroom management and teacher–student relationships. The majority of teachers reported distinguishing on the basis of gender in their teaching or classroom management. Several teachers indicated that they used a ‘softer’ approach with girls, and a ‘matey’ approach with boys. However, interviews with their 7–8-year-old students revealed that most thought that their teacher treated boys and girls equally. The teachers stated that their differential treatment related either to the ‘inevitable’ (biological or socialised) differences between boys and girls, or a feeling of professional responsibility to exercise sensitivity towards the needs of each gender. Many teachers spoke of the importance of mixing boys and girls in class activities or seating arrangements, although their reasons were unclear. This may reflect the lingering influence of equal opportunities initiatives of the 1980s or may arise from more recent notions that mixing genders will improve boys’ behaviour and motivation. At least half the teachers indicated that they felt students should be treated ‘the same but differently’, and that gender differences should inform their curriculum planning and management. Such views may be shaped by the attention that boys’ achievement and engagement with schooling has received over the last decade. The ‘gender problem’ in education has evolved from initial calls for ‘non-discriminatory environments’ to building girls’ engagement in technological subjects, to the current emphasis on boys. It is unsurprising that boosting boys’ achievement is so prominent in the current competitive educational environment, but policy makers need to adopt a more critical approach and encourage teachers to fully explore the ways in which gender influences all aspects of the learning environment. KLA Subject HeadingsGirls' educationBoys' education Teacher-student relationships 'ADHD does bad stuff to you': young people's and parents' experiences and perceptions of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Volume 11
Number 3, September 2006;
Pages 205–216
Researchers in KLA Subject HeadingsBehavioural problemsMental Health Psychology Attention Great Britain Repertoires for diversity: effective pedagogies for inclusive practiceJanuary 2006;
Pages 1–11
The Repertoires for Diversity study was Tasmania’s contribution to the Australian Government’s Effective Teaching and Learning Practices for Students with Learning Difficulties Initiative. The study analysed teaching practices in Tasmanian schools that have achieved sustained and significant improvement, or ‘value-adding’, in State assessments for high-needs students. At a school-wide level the study identified several common characteristics among the exemplary schools. All schools dedicated significant time to in-school professional learning, and undertook research-based inquiry into innovative practices at a school and classroom level. Regular collaborative planning time was scheduled for high-needs students, involving teachers, teaching assistants (TAs) and specialist support staff. Designated senior staff were responsible for monitoring coherence between school policies and practices, needs and resources, and orthodoxies and innovations. Although the school is one contributing factor, research shows that teachers have the most significant influence on student achievement. Researchers therefore identified five exemplary teachers within the high value-adding schools, and studied their practices using a checklist of practices compiled from the Supportive School Communities, Productive Pedagogies and Flying Start programs. All five teachers frequently employed interdisciplinary approaches, working with other teachers across subject areas. Whole-class discussions were used to deepen understanding of focus topics, moving beyond individual student reporting to the class. The teachers often ‘made the obvious problematic’, using meta-language to analyse even routine learning activities, and deliberately modelled higher-order thinking skills when working through challenges themselves. High levels of student self-regulation and open-ended activity in these classes ‘maximised the fit of child and challenge’. Practices that specifically supported high-needs students in the five classes included ownership of the individual student’s learning program by the teacher, not just the TA, exposing all students to rich pedagogies and life skills learning, and fostering a supportive classroom environment. These teachers show that exemplary teaching practices that benefit all students are also likely to enhance the learning of students with special learning needs. Activities that foster higher-order thinking should not be reserved for mainstream students only, but may be effectively tailored to include all ability levels within the classroom. KLA Subject HeadingsTasmaniaSpecial education Learning problems Teacher aides Schools Teaching and learning Imagining pedagogy: infusing visual literacy in schoolsThere has been a revolution in the packaging and dissemination of knowledge. Texts have become multimodal in nature, including language, static images and, increasingly, dynamic images. Visual literacy is the skill set needed to interpret the content of visual images, the social impact of the images and their purpose, audience and ownership. It includes the ability to use visual images effectively. The implementation of visual literacy should follow the four stages of awareness, attention, assimilation and advancement. The awareness stage is the recognition by educators that meaning and knowledge are not constructed by language alone. The teaching of language literacy should broaden to allow a focus on visual images, and the interplay between images and text. There is a need to develop theoretical models of visual literacy and to ensure that the topic is covered in students' courses. Assimilation is the actual infusion of visual literacy into the education system, with explicit teaching of visual literacy and the multimodal production of knowledge. Advancement occurs as students learn to 'read' visual images with a discriminating eye. Visually literate students would be effective producers of texts incorporating both language and visuals. There is already an awareness of the importance of visual literacy in some sectors, though more work is required for a sustained systemic change. KLA Subject HeadingsTeaching professionMass media study and teaching Visual literacy |